The Psych Diaries

Introduction to Learning Psychology

Definition of learning

Learning is the process of acquiring new information, behaviours, or associations through experience.
It produces relatively enduring changes in behaviour or mental processes.

Three Main Types of Learning

1. Simple Learning
2. General Learning
3. Specialised Learning

Each reflects increasing levels of cognitive complexity and biological investment.

1. Simple Learning

Simple learning involves basic changes in responsiveness to repeated stimuli.
This is present in almost all animals—even those with very small nervous systems.

Examples of animals with simple learning:

• Sea slugs (Aplysia)
  • Nervous system: ~20,000 neurons
  • Used extensively to study learning and memory (Eric Kandel’s Nobel Prize-winning work)
  • Famous model: Gill and siphon withdrawal reflex

Two Types of Simple Learning

Habituation

• Repeated stimulation → decreasing response
• Organism learns that the stimulus is irrelevant or not harmful
• Example:
  • Not noticing the sound of a ticking clock after a while
  • Sea slug stops withdrawing gill after repeated harmless touches

Sensitisation

• Repeated or intense stimulation → increasing response
• Heightened alertness or defensive reaction
• Example:
  • Increased startle response after a shock
  • After a painful stimulus, even a light touch triggers a strong reflex

How simple learning differs from other forms

• Changes are short-lived
• Typically involve reflex pathways, not complex decision-making
• Specific to one biological system (e.g., withdrawal reflex)
• Produces restricted behavioural change, not generalised learning

Simple learning forms the biological foundation upon which more complex learning is built.

2. General Learning

General learning is flexible, adaptable, and broadly applicable across contexts.
It involves forming associations that help organisms predict and influence outcomes.

Two major categories:

A. Classical Conditioning (Event → Consequence)

Organism learns that one event predicts another.

Originally described by Ivan Pavlov

• Pavlov’s dogs
• Bell (neutral stimulus) → food (unconditioned stimulus)
• After pairing: Bell becomes a conditioned stimulus causing salivation

Key idea:

Events in the environment predict consequences.

Terminology

• Unconditioned stimulus (US) — natural trigger (food, shock)
• Unconditioned response (UR) — natural reaction (salivation, fear)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) — previously neutral cue
• Conditioned response (CR) — learned reaction to CS

Extinction

When the CS (bell) no longer predicts the US (food), the CR (salivation) gradually decreases.
This does not erase the association—just inhibits it.

B. Operant Conditioning (Action → Consequence)

Organism learns that its own behaviour produces outcomes.

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

• Cats accidentally pressed a lever → door opened → escape + food
• Over trials, behaviour became faster and more deliberate

Law of Effect

Behaviours followed by positive outcomes → more likely
Behaviours followed by negative outcomes → less likely

Skinner’s Contributions

Developed the Skinner box to study behaviour systematically in rats and pigeons.

Shaping

• Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behaviour
• Example:
  • Rat rewarded for standing near lever → touching lever → pressing lever

Radical Behaviourism

• Skinner argued:
  Free will is an illusion
  Behaviour = history of reinforcement + current environment

Differences between Classical & Operant Conditioning

Feature	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Starts with	Event	Action
Organism learns	Event predicts outcome	Behaviour predicts outcome
Response	Involuntary (reflexive)	Voluntary (goal-directed)
Central mechanism	Association between stimuli	Reinforcement & punishment

Similarities

• Both depend on prediction
• Both require contingency (consistent relationships)
• Both shaped by biologically salient consequences (reward/aversion)

3. Specialised Learning

These forms require higher cognition, often unique to certain species.

Characteristics

• Restricted to species with advanced neural capacities
• Not universal across all animals
• Often require:
  • Planning
  • Memory
  • Creativity
  • Social observation
  • Developmentally sensitive learning windows

Examples

Imitation

Copying actions observed in others.
Seen in apes, dolphins, children, birds.

Think, Test, Revise (Trial-and-Error with Understanding)

More strategic problem-solving, not random actions.

Insight Learning

Sudden realisation of a solution without obvious trial-and-error.
Example:

• Köhler’s chimp stacking boxes to reach bananas
• Problem-solving “aha” moment

Tool Use

• Crows bending wire into hooks
• Primates using sticks to retrieve insects

Language Learning

• Humans have a critical period (usually before puberty)
• Beyond that, native fluency becomes difficult
• Birds also have sensitive periods for song learning

Imprinting

Rapid, early learning that forms long-lasting attachment (e.g., ducklings following first moving object).

Summary

Simple Learning

• Biological reflex modification
• Habituation & sensitisation
• Short-term, species-general

General Learning

• Associative
• Classical conditioning (event → consequence)
• Operant conditioning (action → consequence)
• Flexible across many situations

Specialised Learning

• Cognitive, strategic, species-specific
• Insight, imitation, language, tool use, imprinting

These levels reflect evolutionary complexity:
from reflex → association → reasoning