Key Terms
| Term | Definition |
| Personality | Distinctive & enduring ways of thinking, feeling and behaving that characterise an individual |
| Trait | A consistent pattern on thought, emotion or behaviour that varies between individuals |
| Theoretical Perspective | Broad framework for understanding personality |
| Idiographic Approach | Method focusing on unique aspects on individuals through detailed case studies |
| Nomothetic Approach | A method seeking general laws that apply across large groups of people |
| Human Universals | Traits shared by humans regardless of culture |
| Individual Differences | Unique patterns and traits that distinguish one person from another |
| Social Psychology | Study of how individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by social contexts |
Definitions of Personality
“Personality is the distinctive & relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling & acting that characterise a person’s responses to life situation” – Passer & Smith, 2018
Personality refers to psychological systems that contribute to an individual’s enduring & distinctive patterns of experience & behaviour” – Cervone & Pervin, 2019
Major Theoretical Perspectives
| Trait Perspective | – Focus on identifying & measuring stable characteristics across people – Traits = enduring patterns of thought, emotion & behaviour – Large scale surveys & statistical methods – Emphasis on individual differences |
| Psychodynamic Perspective | – Founded in Freud’s work on the unconscious – Focus on early childhood & internal conflicts – Explores how hidden motives/ defense mechanisms shape behaviour – Dream analysis |
| Humanistic Perspective | – Emphasis on the human drive for self-actualisation – Views people as inherently good & motivated to realise their potential – Focus on conscious experience, free will, importance of meaning & authentic relationships on personality |
| Social-Cognitive Perspective | – How learning, cognition & environment influence learning – Considers how people interpret experiences, set goals & regulate own behaviour – Integration of behaviourism & cognitive psychology |
Idiographic vs Nomothetic Research
| Approach | Description | When to use |
| Idiographic | – Focus on individual uniqueness – Private, subjective & conscious experiences – Investigations gain written information unique to individual being studied | Used in clinical settings |
| Nomothetic | – Attempts to establish general laws for all people – Objective knowledge through scientific methods – Investigations gain numerical data or data that can be categorised | Used to test hypotheses about general trends or to develop tools for broad use. |
Person vs Situation
| Person Perspective | Emphasis on the role of internal traits in guiding behaviour. Believes people act consistently in different situations because of these enduring traits. |
| Situation Perspective | Emphasis on the external, social & environmental factors on behaviour. Believes people’s actions change a lot depending on context (group dynamics, cultural norms). |
| Person x Situation Interaction | Modern view that emphasises the interaction between personality & situation on behaviour. They both influence each other (reciprocal determinism). |
The Trait Approach
Key Concepts
| Term | Definition |
| Trait | Stable disposition consistent across situations & time |
| Dimension | A continuum along which individuals vary in degree |
| Lexical Hypothesis | Idea that important personality traits are encoded in language & can be identified through words people use |
| Factor Analysis | Statistical method used to group related traits & uncover underlying dimensions of personality |
| Cardinal Trait | Dominant trait that strongly characterises an individual’s personality |
| Central Trait | A general characteristic found to some degree in every person |
| Secondary Trait | A trait that appears only in certain circumstances |
| Five Factor Model | A widely accepted model describing personality using five dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism |
Evolution of Trait Theory
Gordon Allport
Founded personality psychology as a distinct field. Introduced concepts of cardinal, central & secondary traits.
Raymond Cattel, 16 personalities test
Used statistical methods to identify 16 basic personality traits. First attempt to systematically map structure of personality. Moved the field toward empirical methods.
Hans Eysenck, E&N factors + PEN model
Proposed a 3 factor model (PEN model): psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism.
Focused on biological underpinnings & used statistical analysis.
Costa & McCrae, Five Factor Model
Dominant framework in personality psychology.
Describes personality using 5 broad dimension.
Major Trait Models
| Allport’s Model | Eysenck’s PEN model | Five Factor Model |
| 3 types of traits: cardinal, central, secondary Emphasises unique combination of traits over broad dimensions | 3 major dimension which have biological foundations & can be measured reliably across individuals Psychotocism, Extraversion, Neuroticism | Describes personality using 5 broad traits on a spectrum: Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism |
How Are Traits Identified?
| Research Method | Description |
| The Lexical Hypothesis | Believes the most significant personality traits are encoded in language. Researchers collet adjectives from dictionaries & everyday speech. |
| Factor Analysis | Statistical technique that examines how different trait descriptors group together. Researchers analyse patterns of responses to identify clusters. Helps reduce thousands of traits into core dimension. |
| Self- Report Measures | Individuals rate themselves on various statements. Data is analysed. Practical, easy to administer. |
| Cross- Cultural Considerations | Cultural differences can affect how traits are expressed or valued. Researchers must adapt their methods to ensure trait models are valid. |
The Five Factor Model
The Big 5 Traits
| Openness to experience | A person’s willingness to try new things & embrace novel ideas. High scorers tend to be imaginative & curious |
| Conscientiousness | How organised, reliable & goal oriented someone is. High scorers tend to be disciplined & careful. |
| Extraversion | Measures sociability, assertiveness & energy. High scorers tend to be outgoing & enjoy social gatherings |
| Agreeableness | How cooperative, compassionate & friendly a person is. High scorers tend to be trusting & helpful. |
| Neuroticism | Measures emotional stability & tendency to experience negative emotions. High scores are more to anxiety & mood swings. |
Measuring & Applying Five Factor Model
- NEO-PI-R –> self report questionnaire designed to measure Big 5 Traits using hundreds of items
- Used in job selection & organisational settings
- Used to study links between personality & outcomes (health, relationships, wellbeing)
Nature & Nurture in Personality
| Term | Definition |
| Nature | Genetic & biological factors influencing personality before environmental effects |
| Nurture | All environmental influences. (Family, culture, life experiences) |
| Heritability | Proportion of variation in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences |
| Culture | Shared beliefs, values & practices that shape how personality traits are expressed/ understood |
| Epigenetics | Study of how environmental factors can alter gene expression without changing DNA sequence |
| Stability | Tendency for personality traits to remain consistent over time |
| Change | Capacity for personality traits to shift due to life events, development or interventions |
Nature vs Nurture
| Nature | Nurture | Interactionist |
| Highlights role genetics in shaping personality. Extraversion & neuroticism = high heritability It is estimated that 1/2 variation in major traits is due to genetic factors | Emphasises role of environment, culture & socialisation. Family dynamics, cultural values, education, life experiences. | Modern view that nature & nurture interact in complex ways. Epigenetics shows that experiences can affect gene expression and personality development. |
Heritability of Personality Traits
What is heritability?
- The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences.
- Applies to populations, not individuals
- Doesn’t mean a trait is fixed
Limitations
- Heritability estimates can be misunderstood/ misused
- Don’t account for all influences on personality
Environmental & Cultural Influences
Family & Upbringing
- Parenting styles, attachment, early experiences
- Supportive families –> increased resilience
- Inconsistent environments –> increased anxiety
Culture & Society
- Cultural values encourage & discourage different traits
- Collectivist vs individualist cultures
- Societal expectations influence extraversion, agreeableness & openness to experience
Life Events & Experiences
- Significant life events can alter personality traits
- Positive experiences = increased optimisim
- Adversity = increased resilience OR vulnerability
Important: We need to avoid ethnocentrism (judging other cultures by the standards of your own).
Stability of Personality
Evidence for stability:
- Longitudinal studies show core personality traits remain consistent over time
- Traits stabilise after early adulthood
- Conscientiousness & openness are particularly stable across time
Evidence for Change:
- Research showing personality can change in response to significant experiences
- Agreeableness & emotional stability can increase with age
- Therapy & education can influence personality
Factors Influencing Change:
- Major life events
- Trauma
- Interventions
- Biological maturation
- Changing social roles
Epigenetics
- Studies how environmental factors influence gene expression without altering FNA
- Helps explain how life experiences can activate or silence certain genetic tendencies
- Highlights that we can change throughout our life
Universality & Limitations of Trait Models
Key Terms
| Term | Definition |
| Universality | The idea that model applies equally across all cultures & populations |
| Five Factor Model | A widely used personality model proposing 5 universal broad trait dimensions |
| Cross-Cultural Research | Studies that compare psychological concepts or models across different societies & cultures |
| Ethnocentrism | Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own, leading to biased interpretations |
| WEIRD populations | Samples drawn from Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich & Democratic societies which may not represent humanity as a whole |
| Generalisability | The extent to which findings from one group or context can be applied to others |
| Alternative Models | Personality frameworks developed outside mainstream. Reflects non-Western or unique cultural contexts. |
Is the Five Factor Model Universal?
| Supporting Evidence | Contradictory Findings | Implications |
| Many studies have replicated the FFM across more than 50 societies on 6 continents. The same dimensions emerge. | A study with the Tsimane people found only 2 personality dimensions (pro-sociality & industriousness). Suggests FFM might not fit small/ non-industrialised societies. | FFM is robust in many settings, but it might not be truly universal. |
Methodological Challenges in Cross-Cultural Research
| Translation & Language Issues | Sampling & Representation | Measurement Equivalence |
| Translating trait measures can lead to errors or lose meaning. Words may not have direct equivalents. | Most research relies on WEIRD samples, limiting generalisability. | Cultural differences in test response and interpretation can affect results. |
Alternative Trait Models
- The Tsimane ‘Big Two’
- East Asian models highlight harmony & relationality
- African frameworks focus on communalism
Trait Models & Personality Disorders
Key Terms
| Term | Definition |
| Personality Disorder | A mental health condition involving enduring, inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling & behaving that deviate from cultural expectations and cause distress. |
| Categorical Approach | A classification method that divides disorders into distinct categories as in DSM models. |
| Dimensional Approach | A model that views disorders as maladaptive extremes on trait continua rather than separate categories |
| DSM-5 | The fifth edition of the Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which provides criteria for diagnosing mental disorders. |
| Alternative Model of Personality Disorders | A dimensional model in DSM-5 that classifies personality disorders based on impairment & maladaptive traits. |
| Maladaptive Traits | Extreme/ pathological variants of normal personality traits that contribute to dysfunction and distress. |
| Five Factor Model | A widely used model describing personality using five broad dimensions, which also inform the understanding of personality pathology. |
Categorical vs Dimensional Approaches to Classifying Personality Disorders
| Categorical Approach | Dimensional Approach |
| Divides personality disorders into clusters. Cluster A: Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal often appear odd or eccentric Cluster B: Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic often appear dramatic, emotional, or erratic Cluster C: Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-compulsive appear anxious or fearful Each disorder viewed as separate with specific criteria | Sees personality disorders as maladaptive variants along trait continua. Disorders = extreme expressions of normal personality traits. Personality disorders are measured in two ways: Criterion A: Impaired personality functioning Criterion B: Pathological personality traits These trait continua are organised into 5 broad domains, maladaptive variants of the FFM of personality: – Negative affectivity (Neuroticism) – Detachment (Extraversion) – Psychoticism (Openness) – Antagonism (Agreeableness) – Disinhibition (Conscientiousness) |
| Strengths: – Straightforward, easy to use Limitations: – Oversimplifies complex patterns – Poor inter-rater reliability -Doesn’t include co-occurrence of personality disorders – Overlap between disorders | Strengths: – Captures spectrum of pathology Limitations: – Harder to implement clinically |
DSM-5 vs Alternative Model
| DSM-5 Categorical Model | DSM-5 Alternative Model (AMPD) | Clinical Implications |
| Organises PDs into 3 clusters. Each disorder has specific diagnostic criteria & is treated as distinct type | Dimensional approach with 2 criteria: A) Impairment in personality functioning (identity, self direction, empathy, intimacy) B) Pathological personality traits | Categorical model = clearer diagnostic labels AMPD = more individualised assessment Clinicians should use both models for patient needs |
Maladaptive Traits & The FFM
Negative Affectivity (Neuroticism)
- Frequent & intense experiences of negative emotions
- Anxiety, depression, mood swings
Detachment (Extraversion)
- Withdrawal from social interactions
- Coldness, limited pleasure
Antagonism (Agreeableness)
- Hostility, manipulativeness
- Lack of empathy
Disinhibition (Conscientiousness)
- Impulsivity, irresponsibility, lack of self control
Psychoticism (Openness)
- Eccentricity
- Odd beliefs
- Perception distortions
How Are Maladaptive Traits Assessed?
- PID-5 measurement tools
- FFM based measurement tools
- Self report questionnaires & structured interviews
- Using trait based assessment for tailored interventions
- Ongoing research is being conducted on dimensional models
