Definition

Psychology = the scientific study of mind, brain, and behaviour.

Why Intuition Isn’t Enough

• Intuition is often wrong.
• Naive realism: the assumption that we see the world “as it is,” often leading to false conclusions.

Why Science Is Important

Cognitive Biases to Guard Against

Bias	Definition
Confirmation Bias	Seeking evidence that supports existing beliefs while ignoring disconfirming data.
Belief Perseverance	Maintaining beliefs even after contradictory evidence appears.

Why Psychology Uses Scientific Methods

Scientific methods act as safeguards, helping prevent these biases and ensuring reliable conclusions.

Psychological Pseudoscience

Pseudoscience = claims that appear scientific but lack scientific safeguards.

Key Differences from Science

• No systematic methods
• No protection against confirmation bias
• No demand for evidence or falsifiability

Scientific Thinking: Fact vs Fiction

Scientific Scepticism

• Evaluate claims with an open mind.
• Accept claims only with compelling evidence.
• Avoid appeals to authority.
• Reflexivity: reflect on one’s own biases and context.

Six Principles of Scientific Thinking

Principle	Explanation
1. Extraordinary Claims	Require extraordinary evidence.
2. Testable Predictions	Claims must be measurable and falsifiable.
3. Generalisability	Findings should apply beyond the studied sample.
4. Replicability	Results must be reproducible across studies.
5. Ruling Out Rivals	Consider alternative explanations.
6. Correlation ≠ Causation	Correlation does not imply a causal relationship.

Important Note: WEIRD Populations

Much psychological research is based on Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic samples → limits generalisability.

Psychology: Past, Present, and Future

Major Theoretical Frameworks

Framework	Focus
Structuralism	Structure of experience via introspection (sensations + feelings).
Functionalism	Adaptive functions of behaviours.
Behaviourism	Observable behaviour; learning laws (conditioning).
Cognitive Psychology	Mental processes: memory, thinking, language.
Psychoanalysis	Unconscious motives and conflicts.
Humanism	Personal growth, meaning, self-actualisation.

The Two Great Debates

Debate	Central Question
Nature vs Nurture	Are behaviours due to genetics or environment?
Free Will vs Determinism	Do we freely choose actions, or are they caused by external/internal factors?

Both debates continue shaping psychological theory and practice.

Types of Psychologists & What They Do

Field	Focus
Clinical & Counselling	Diagnosis and treatment of mental illness.
School Psychology	Learning needs; interventions in school contexts.
Industrial/Organisational	Workplace behaviour, productivity, leadership.
Forensic	Law, crime, eyewitness reliability.
Community Psychology	Empowerment and wellbeing in communities (e.g., migrant, rural).
Developmental	Lifespan changes in thinking, emotion, behaviour.
Experimental	Learning, cognition, memory research.
Biological Psychology	Brain–behaviour relationships.
Neuropsychology	Assessment of cognitive impairment (e.g., stroke).
Social Psychology	How groups influence individuals (e.g., bystander effect).
Personality Psychology	Human traits (e.g., Big 5).
Cognitive Psychology	Thinking, problem-solving, reading development.
Organisational Psychology	Work behaviour, performance evaluation.
Cross-Cultural Psychology	Cultural influences on behaviour.
Indigenous Psychology	Indigenous-led knowledge and methodologies; challenges Western models.
Perception Psychology	How we process sensory information.
Learning Psychology	Behavioural learning processes (e.g., Pavlov).

How Psychology Shapes Daily Life

Psychological research informs:

• Advertising and persuasion
• Public safety (e.g., warning systems, accident prevention)
• Legal processes (e.g., eyewitness memory)
• Education (learning design, attention, motivation)

Bridging the Scientist–Practitioner Gap

Concept	Explanation
Scientist–Practitioner Gap	Split between research psychologists and applied practitioners.
Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)	Clinical decisions guided by scientific research.
Practice-Based Evidence (PBE)	Real-world practitioner experience informs research questions.

Bridging the gap = integrating research + practitioner insight for effective, culturally competent interventions.