What Is Psychology?

• Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour and mental processes, not intuition.
• Common sense and intuition contain biases and limitations:
  • Confirmation bias: seeking information that confirms existing beliefs.
  • Naïve realism: believing we see the world exactly as it is.

Psychology vs Pseudoscience

Pseudoscience

Practices that claim to be scientific but lack the characteristics of real science.

Examples of Pseudoscience

• Extrasensory perception (ESP)
• Astrology
• Facilitated communication

Characteristics of Science

• Empirical evidence
• Systematic observation
• Testability
• Scientific method
• Peer review
• Willingness to revise ideas based on evidence

Evaluating Scientific Claims

1. Claims Must Be Falsifiable

If a claim cannot be proven wrong, it cannot be scientifically evaluated.

2. Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence

Supported through:

• Controlled experiments
• Independent replication
• Peer review
• Statistical significance
• Neuroscientific basis
• Known examples: The Mozart Effect

3. Claims Must Be Testable

If it cannot be tested, no scientific conclusion can be made.

4. Occam’s Razor

The simplest explanation is typically the most accurate.

5. Replication

• Replication tests reliability of findings.
• Example: Power posing studies failing replication.

6. Excluding Rival Hypotheses

• Ensures conclusions rest on a full understanding of the phenomenon.
• Increases confidence in validity.

Correlation vs Causation

• Correlation: Two variables change together under similar conditions.
• Causation: Change in one variable produces change in another.
• Correlation alone cannot establish causal relationships.

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observation
   Researcher notices a phenomenon and wonders about its cause.
2. Question
   A question is formed based on observation, ensuring it fills a research gap.
3. Hypothesis
   A testable prediction.
4. Experimentation
   Manipulate the IV, measure the DV.
5. Analysis
   Examine collected data for patterns.
6. Conclusion
   Draw conclusions about hypothesis validity.
7. Iteration
   Develop new hypotheses, refine methods, continue investigation.
8. Communication
   Share findings publicly.

History of Scientific Psychology

Structuralism — Late 19th Century

• Founded by Edward Bradford Titchener, student of Wilhelm Wundt.
• Focus: structure of consciousness.
• Used introspection: participants reported their internal experiences.
• Limitations:
  • Highly subjective.
  • Not replicable.
  • Neglected unconscious processes.
• Contribution: established systematic observation in psychology.

Functionalism — Late 19th to Early 20th Century

• Founded by William James, influenced by Charles Darwin.
• Focus: the adaptive purpose (function) of thoughts, feelings, behaviour.
• Emphasised observational methods.
• Influences modern evolutionary psychology.

Behaviourism — Early to Mid-20th Century

• Founded by John B. Watson.
• Focused on observable behaviour, not internal states.
• Studied learning principles in humans and animals.
• Dismissed unobservable mental processes.

Psychoanalysis — Early to Late 20th Century

• Founded by Sigmund Freud.
• Emphasised unconscious conflicts and desires.
• Influence on psychotherapy and personality theory.
• Criticised for lack of scientific testability.

Cognitivism — Mid-20th Century Onward

• Focuses on mental processes (memory, reasoning, problem-solving).
• Argued behaviour depends on how people interpret stimuli.
• Enabled psychologists to study mechanisms underlying thinking.

Levels of Psychological Analysis

Level	Focus
Molecular	Individual molecules, genetic influences, neurotransmitters
Neurochemical	Chemical messengers (neurotransmitters, hormones), and how they affect behaviour
Physiological	Brain structures, neural circuits, bodily processes
Mental (Cognitive/Emotional)	Thoughts, beliefs, emotions, memory, perception, decision-making
Behavioural	Observable actions and how they are shaped by stimuli
Social	Interaction, environmental influences, cultural and group processes

Major Fields of Psychology

Clinical Psychology

• Assesses and treats mental health disorders (anxiety, depression, severe disorders).
• Draws on cognitive, developmental, social, and personality psychology.
• Tailors interventions to individual needs.

Organisational Psychology

• Studies workplace behaviour.
• Examines teamwork, leadership, motivation.
• Uses personality psychology for job-role matching.

Health Psychology

• Promotes healthy behaviour and prevents illness.
• Studies how people understand health information.
• Creates behaviour change strategies.
• Draws on biological psychology to understand physiological processes.

Neuropsychology

• Assesses and treats brain injuries and neurological disorders.
• Examines effects of brain damage on memory, attention, reasoning.
• Uses cognitive and learning psychology to design assessments.

Educational Psychology

• Studies learning processes and strengthens teaching.
• Uses cognitive psychology to understand how learning occurs.
• Incorporates developmental psychology to meet student needs.
• Considers social influences on learning.

Overall Significance

• Psychological subfields work together to understand complex behaviours.
• Concepts from one area inform others (e.g., cognitive psychology informs clinical practice).
• Knowledge translates into improved wellbeing across individuals, organisations, and communities.